David Ewick



 

Yukari Himeno

The Education of Foreign Children in Japan

The aim of this paper is to describe how Japan’s education system treats children from other countries, especially in regard to junior high schools and the high school entrance examinations. I use statistical data from documents of the Japanese government, published material explaining the state of “newcomer children,” and interviews with teachers of junior high schools and high schools in Kanagawa prefecture.

I. Registered foreigners

The 2003 report of Nyûkoku kanri kyoku (Japanese Immigration Bureau) showed that the number of registered foreign residents and their ratio to the total population in Japan are increasing. There were 1,851,758 foreign residents at the end of 2002, an increase of 4.1 percent from 2001 and 44.5 percent from 1993. The ratio of registered foreign residents to the total population of Japan (127,435,650) is 1.45 percent. Although Japan’s total population growth rate since 1993 is 2.3 percent, the growth rate of registered foreign residents was 44.5 percent at the end of 2002 (Nyûkoku kanri kyoku, 2003).

In the Japanese way of speaking of foreign residents, there are two groups, the “oldcomers” and the “newcomers.” The former consists of North and South Koreans and their descendents who came to Japan because of Japanese colonial policy in Korea from 1910 to 1945[1] (Zenkoku zainichi gaikokujin kyôoku kenkyû kyôgikai, 2000. pp. 20-21). The newcomer group includes foreign residents who came to Japan with their families after the middle of the 1980s[2] (Kanagawaken kyôiku bunka kenkyûjo, 2001, p. 1). I am aware that this way of classifying foreign residents is odd. Some “newcomers,” for example, have lived and worked in Japan for twenty years or more, but this is the common idiom in Japan, and so I shall use it in this paper.

Although the number of foreign residents is increasing, both the number and ratio of Koreans have decreased after 1991.[3] In 1993, the proportion of Koreans of the total Alien Registration was 51.7 percent, but in 2002, the percentage was 33.8 percent. In contrast, the number and ratio of newcomers is increasing. They are from many countries, but mainly from Indo-China (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia), China, and South America (Nyûkoku kanri kyoku, 1994, 2003).[4]

II. Newcomer children

The number of newcomer children is increasing annually. However, sufficient statistical data about their number and circumstances does not exist, and so I have estimated the situation of newcomer children from two sets of data. First, from the 2003 statistics of registered foreigners who are from five to fifteen years of age, we can estimate that more than 74,000 newcomer children were studying in compulsory education in Japan in 2002, twice as many as in 1995.[5] Of these about 23,000 are Brazilian, 21,000 Chinese, 6,900 Filipino, and 5,600 Peruvian (Nyûkoku kanri kyoku, 2003). Although the total number of foreign students has not changed dramatically recently, the number of newcomer children is increasing (see figure1, Nyûkan kyôkai, 1986-2002).

Figure 1. Number of newcomer children age 5-15
Source: Nyûkan kyôkai, Zairyû gaikokujin tôkei , various editions (1987-2003).

The number of newcomer children who need to study Japanese in compulsory education and high schools is 19,764,[6] according to the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Science, Sports and Technology (MEXT, 2003a). Although no significant change has occurred recently, the number of newcomer children is now 3.2 times as high as in 1991, and they live in many parts of the country. In 2002, 2,598 lived in Aichi prefecture, 1,895 in Kanagawa, 1,686 in Tokyo, and 1,684 in Shizuoka. Most speak one of three languages, 36.1 percent Portuguese, 27.6 percent Chinese, 13.7 percent Spanish (MEXT, 2003a).

One set of data describes particularly well one of the problems with education for newcomer children in Japan. A MEXT 2003 report shows that 43.6 percent of the newcomer children who need to study Japanese have been in school for more than two years (MEXT, 2003a). Miyajima Akira, a professor at the Faculty of Sociology at Rikkyo University, points out that many newcomer children do not have adequate Japanese ability, and the number of newcomer children who have a problem with Japanese in junior high schools is increasing. Thus, studying in junior high schools and continuing their academic work after graduation will be a significant problem for them (Miyajima, 2001, p. 3).

Figure 2. Number of newcomer children who need to study Japanese (1991-2002)

Source: Monbukagakusho, Nihongo shidô ga hitsuyouna seito no ukeirejoukyoutounikansuru chôsa (2003). Data for high school was not recorded before 1994.

III. The aim of Japanese education

MEXT tries to teach Japanese students kokusaika (internationalization), but no programs exist in which Japanese students can exchange their culture and customs with newcomer children. The Central Educational Council of MEXT submitted a proposal for revision of the Fundamentals of Education Act on March 20, 2003 (2003b), but the purpose of the revision is to encourage Japanese to acquire an “international way of thinking” by cultivating “love for Japanese culture, tradition and patriotism” (MEXT, 2003b).

Also, the MEXT pamphlet Kyôiku no kôzô kaikaku (structural reform of education) emphasizes educational reforms to cultivate shakai-sei (sociability) and kokusai-sei (an international way of thinking), and to accomplish these reforms MEXT propose English classes in compulsory education, and other language classes and cultural exchange by studying abroad in higher education (2003c). In these two policies, it seems that education in Japan is open only for Japanese, and that cultural exchange with other countries and studying English are the only ways for Japanese to develop kokui-sei. The Japanese educational policy of kokusai-sei is a peculiar system, a proposal for an international way of thinking made without consideration for the newcomer children who live within Japanese society.

IV. Government policies

Although MEXT has adopted some policies for newcomer children, they do not fit the actual situation of the children. The fundamental idea at MEXT is that “newcomer children do not have an obligation to study in Japan,”[7] and that if “they want to enter Japanese schools, we will accept them and treat as equally as Japanese” (2003d). Such a policy has three problems. First, the standard of establishing a kokusai kyôshitsu (international classroom) to give Japanese lessons for newcomer children and other lessons to help their lives in school is rigid and not realistically suitable. In1992 MEXT decided to post one teacher at every school with more than five newcomer children, to open a kokusai kyôshitsu.[8] However, in 2002 half of the schools that decided to accept newcomer children had only one foreign student, and 80 percent of schools accept fewer than five newcomer children (MEXT, 2003a), and so these schools cannot have kokusai kyôshitsu. Second, concerning international matters the Japanese education system is mainly concerned with Japanese children who have returned from other countries. MEXT policy explicitly notes that high schools, universities, and private schools should treat returnees well (MEXT, 2003d). However, there is no comment about school entrance for newcomer children. And third, teaching materials for newcomer children are only provided for basic study of Japanese, and there are no recommended materials whatever in junior high schools (MEXT, 2003d).

V. Kokusai kyôshitsu

The reality is that the concept of kokusai kyôshitsu is failing in the current system. Although according to MEXT there are 1,107 children who need to study Japanese in 277 elementary schools, and 550 children in 142 junior high schools in Kanagawa prefecture (MEXT, 2003a), only 75 elementary schools (25 percent) and 34 junior high schools (23 percent) have kokusai kyôshitsu (International Division, 2003). Therefore, many schools have to support newcomer children by themselves, or with the help of a local school board, not MEXT.

According to an investigation by the Japanese General Institute of National Education and Culture (GINEC),[9] 65.8 percent of the kokusai kyôshitsu in junior high schools addressed “Japanese conversation, reading and writing,” and “studying subjects” accounted for only 13.7 percent (figure 3, 4, 2003). Thus, the subject studies are not popular in junior high schools.

Next, kokusai kyôshitsu is held in various ways. Mainly, 85.9% of the classes are held in separate classrooms. However, 67.7 percent of teachers said that “newcomer students tend to have difficulty learning subjects in Japanese even if they can communicate well in Japanese” (GINEC, 2003). So it is difficult to learn Japanese well enough to be able to study subjects even in junior high schools that have kokusai kyôshitsu. The Japanese education system does not provide newcomer children with enough chances to “study” in Japanese.

Figure 3: Studies in kokusai kyôshitsu (international classroom)

Japanese conversation, Reading and Writing

65.8%

Study of Kanji and Japanese terms to help learn subject

15.1%

Studying subject

13.7%

Study of Japanese culture and lifestyle

1.4%

Study of first language and country

4.1%

Other studies

0.0%

Source: Kokumin kyôiku bunka sôgô kenkyûjo (GINEC), Gaikokujin jidô no shidô ni kansuru questionnaire (2003)

Figure 4: The method of kokusai kyôshitsu

Study at other classroom whole other students study in class

85.90%

Teaching when students come with an inquiry

1.20%

Class study with classmates ( with an assistant to help )

1.20%

Teaching after school

8.20%

Other

3.50%

Source: Kokumin kyôiku bunka sôgô kenkyûjo (GINEC), Gaikokujin jidô no shidô ni kansuru questionnaire (2003)

VI. Education for newcomer children in Kanagawa prefecture: Case study in Fujisawa city

In Kanagawa prefecture in 2003 there are 2,939 newcomer children in elementary schools, 1387 in junior high schools, and 754 in high schools (Kanagawa school board, 2003a),[10] and the number has increased regularly (Kanagawa school board, 2003a ; Kanagawa ken kôtôgakkô kyôiku kumiai 1990-2001).

Figure 5: number of newcomer children in school in Kanagawa prefecture

Sources: Kanagawa ken kôtô gakkô kyôiku kaikan, Kyôiku kenkyûjo, Kyôiku hakusho, various issues (Yokohama: 1990-2001), the Kanagawa Education Board, Report of number of foreign children (2002, 2003). (Data for high school not recorded before 1992 and in 2002.)

In Fujisawa City, there were 5,594 registered foreign residents (Fujisawa City, 2003), and 276 newcomer children in compulsory education (Fujisawa school board, 2003). Of those, 40 percent are from South America. The total number in junior high school is about 70 students, 20 of whom need to take Japanese lessons (Fujisawa school board, 2003).

In my interviews conducted at all the public junior high schools in Fujisawa City, it became clear that 12 junior schools have had newcomer children as students and 7 have not.[11] In the former 12 schools, two did not provide support for the newcomer children, and ten schools have supported them by using an advisor (2003). However, only one school (“A” junior high school) has kokusai kyôshitsu, because they have 20 newcomer children. In this school, the teachers in charge, parents, and the newcomer children themselves decide together whether or not they need kokusai kyôshitsu. Also, the teacher asks students how many hours they can commit to kokusai kyôshitsu, and which subjects they want to study. In kokusai kyôshitsu, students study each subject with the subject’s teachers or student volunteers, not an advisor who can use their first language. The aim of the lesson is to give students preliminary knowledge of the subjects to understand their regular classes. Also, they have Japanese lessons from an advisor sent from the Fujisawa school board (“A” junior high school, 2003). So, in this school, foreign students can choose the subject of studies and Japanese lessons to support their lack of ability to study in Japanese. But as mentioned above, this is a rare example of a kokusai kyôshitsu program supported by the MEXT.

VII. Entrance to high school

Students have to take an entrance examination to enter high schools in Japan. This is because high schools are not compulsory, and so they choose only students deemed competent to engage in their studies. Although some special entrance examinations are available for newcomer children, these examinations are subject to policy established at the prefectural level (China kikokusha teichaku sokushin center, 2003). In interviews, junior high school and high school teachers said that if newcomer children plan to go to high school, most of them have to take the same entrance examination as Japanese students, and it is strenuous work for them. As a result, they often have to enter lower-level high schools, part-time high schools, or correspondence schools. They are often forced to choose high schools to which they do not want to go (A-E junior high school teacher, F-H high school teachers, 2003).

In Kanagawa prefecture, the ratio of junior high school students who went on to prefectural high schools was 66 percent (Kanagawa school board, 2003b). The ratio of foreign students was 40 percent (Kanagawaken kôtô gakkô kyoushokuin kumiai, 2002).

In addition, the nationality ratio of newcomer children is different between compulsory education and high schools. Some teachers said that of newcomer children Chinese students are the most likely to pass the entrance examinations. Chinese characters are similar to Japanese writing, and so Chinese students can understand Japanese more rapidly and more easily than other newcomer children (A-H teachers, 2003). Also, there was the same answer in a report on newcomer children registered in prefectural high schools. A high school teacher commented: “Recently, newcomer children who have enough Japanese ability take a special entrance examination for foreign students and successful candidates are Chinese in most cases.[12] As a result, the passing mark rises and it leads to a situation where it is hard for other newcomer children to pass this examination, and they cannot receive the benefit of this system” (Kanagawa ken kôtô gakkô kyôshokuin kumiai, 2003). A comparison of newcomer children who needed Japanese lessons taught in their first language in 2002 backs this up (figures 7-9, MEXT, 2003a). In compulsory education, newcomer students whose first language is Chinese are 20-40 percent, Portuguese 30-40 percent. But in high school, students whose first language is Chinese account for 53 percent, Portuguese 11 percent. So it is easer for Chinese students to enter high schools than it is for other newcomer students.

Figures 7, 8, 9: First language of foreign children who need to study Japanese in elementary schools, junior high schools and prefectural high schools

Source: Monbukagakusho, Nihongo shido ga hitsuyouna gaikokujin jidou seitono ukeireni kansuru chosa (2003a)

VIII. Conclusion

To summarize my research, there are mainly three problems for newcomer children: they cannot receive adequate instruction in Japanese, the international education system does not correspond to their needs, and the system of kokusai kyôshitsu does not fit their reality. Therefore, it is obvious that the Japanese education system cannot give newcomer children a proper opportunity to study in Japan.

I propose two solutions to these problems. One is a reform of the education system for newcomer children, the other a reform of the definition of newcomer education itself. The first solution is to create a degree of teaching Japanese as a second language, to provide more teachers who know the aims and methods of professional second language education. If this became a reality schools would have teachers with sufficient knowledge to help the children whether or not their school qualified for kokusai kyôshitsu. This degree would also be provided for teachers who work in schools. There are two bases for my arguments. First, there is a shortage of teachers who can work for newcomer children now. In the investigation of kokusai kyôshitsu by GINEC (General institute of National Education and culture), 56.3 percent of teachers who work in junior high schools answered that they need more teachers and have difficulty giving lessons to newcomer children (2003).[13] The second basis of my argument is that there are few teachers who have professional skills for teaching newcomer children now. These skills would help to rectify the language handicap newcomer children face in subject studies. At present, as I mentioned above, most schools provide newcomer children special lessons only in Japanese conversation and writing.

The second solution is to make a new definitions for newcomer student education. In interviews some teachers said that since newcomer students can speak Japanese well, we do not have to give special care to them. We have to treat them as equal to Japanese students, because not only newcomer children are special (A-C junior high school teachers, 2003). However, not everyone agrees. “Some teachers cannot understand why newcomer children have problems in subject studies even if they speak Japanese fluently in conversation” (teacher at “A” junior high school). Of course, there are many students who have various problems in schools, and teachers cannot use their time only for newcomer children. These children have a language handicap, however, and their situation when it comes to studying subjects is different than it is for Japanese students. We will make a first step in addressing this problem when we recognize this basic reality in our “internationalizing” society.


Notes

1. After Japan lost the Second World War, 75 percent of the Koreans who lived in Japan, about 2,300,000, returned to Korea. But 64,706 remained in Japan in March 1946 (Tanaka 1998, p. 60-61).

2. Since the 1980s, there has been serious shortage of blue-collar workers (Zainichi gaikokujin kyôiku; questionnaires and answers, 2001, pp.73, 74).

3. Since 1991, the number of Koreans who have special permanent residence has been decreasing (Nyûkokukanrikyoku, 2003a). This number does not include about 50,000 Koreans who were naturalized as Japanese citizens in the last five years (Houmushô 2003).

4. Many Japanese migrated to South America from 1908 to the 1960s. (International Nikkei Research project, 2003).

5. This number does not include Koreans. Most Koreans have special permanent visas, the legacy of Japanese colonial policy in the Second World War. They were born in Japan to parents with Korean nationality. According to Article 2 of the Japanese Nationality Act, Japanese nationality is only given to children if their parent (father or mother) has Japanese nationality, or their parents are missing, or the children have no nationality.

6. This investigation does not express the real number because MEXT leaves the judgment about which children need to study Japanese to school teachers (a teacher at “A” junior high school, F-H high school teachers, 2003).

7. The Constitution of Japan guarantees compulsory education.

8. The maximum is only 2 teachers regardless of the number of foreign students.

9. The survey was conducted in the seven prefectures, Gunma, Saitama, Tokyo, Chiba, Kanagawa, Aichi, and Osaka, in which most of the newcomer children were registered. This questionnaire was sent to all professors of schools that had kokusai kyôshitsu, and received 4,608 responses.

10. This number includes Korean students, who mainly have permanent residence and were born in Japan.

11. There are 19 municipal junior high schools.

12. In Kanagawa prefecture, two prefectural high schools have special examinations for newcomer children who have to stayed for three years or less. But entrance was limited to 20 students. In 2004, five high schools will offer this examination with a limit of 50-60 students. There are 166 prefectural high schools in Kanagawa. (Kôkô shingaku guidebook, 2003).

13. Although MEXT posts one or two teachers to schools, this does not mean that only these teachers provide instruction for newcomer children. The schools can decide which courses are provided for newcomer children and which teachers are assigned to them.


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